Every year with the arrival of autumn thousands of sportsmen head for the field in pursuit of their favorite game. Except for a few wildlife species, most of this hunting is done in or near the forest. Our forests provide the habitat (food and cover) that wildlife need. The better the habitat, the healthier and more plentiful the wildlife.

Timberland owners can make their forest more productive for native wildlife, especially game species such as deer and turkey. All forests are different and are probably the most variable natural resource we have. We have pine forests, hardwood forests, and mixed forests. Some forests are old with large trees while others are young with small sapling trees. Forests come in all shapes, sizes, and species. Since forests are not all the same, the wildlife habitat they provide varies as well.

Timberland owners, with the help of foresters, can improve the wildlife habitat of their timberland and, at the same time, improve their timber. As timberland owners, it is our responsibility to learn what our forest factory is worth and how to manage it to its full advantage.

Managing for wildlife

Fire and wildlife.

Wildfires can be very bad for wildlife and timber, but prescribed burning in pine stands will improve wildlife habitat. Prescribed burning is the deliberate use of fire under controlled conditions to accomplish certain timberland objectives. It is one of the best wildlife habitat improvement techniques available to forest managers. Browse plants (hardwood sprouts and other forage plants) will soon grow beyond the reach of deer in well-managed pine stands. Prescribed burning at 2- to 3-year intervals will keep browse within reach of deer and will stimulate the growth of green, succulent plants. In addition, fire improves the nutritional quality of deer browse for 2-3 years. Quail and turkey also benefit because heavy brush is removed and annual plants are encouraged to grow. Prescribed burning used in conjunction with pine thinnings can dramatically improve wildlife habitat. Research has shown that it can result in the production of more than five times the available wildlife food.

Pine plantations and wildlife.

In the Southern and South Eastern United States, outside delta and other major river bottoms, the majority of land is best suited for pine, and in most cases, timberland owners and forest industries should be managing this land for pine. The debate over hardwood or pine, however, is not the most important issue. How we manage the pine stands is really the most important issue. About half of the timberland in the US is comprised of softwoods, and because many other forests and fields are now being converted to pine plantations, many sportsmen are afraid that wildlife habitat is being destroyed. Through proper forest management, these pine plantations can provide good wildlife habitat and may actually provide more wildlife food for certain game species such as deer, turkey, and quail. Unfortunately, the picture most of us see when pine trees are mentioned is one of dense, dark rows of pine trees. Pine plantations go through many stages, just as a person goes through many changes from birth to adulthood. Throughout the life span of a pine plantation (which may vary from 30-60 years), wildlife habitat is constantly changing. For the first 5-6 years after pines are planted, a wide assortment of grasses, forbs, and browse in the understory provide an abundance of food for deer and turkeys. During this period, a pine plantation can be very productive for wildlife, especially if these young pine stands are interspersed with other habitat types such as older pine stands, hardwood stands, or mixed stands. After this first growth period, management plays a key role. The pine tree crowns will soon grow close together, and sunlight will be shaded from the forest floor. Ultimately, the grasses, forbs, and browse plants will start to disappear because they need sunlight to grow. If left unmanaged, the "biological desert" perception of pine stands will result. This is where management in the form of thinnings plays an important role. As soon as pine plantations reach pulpwood size, between 15-18 years of age, they should be marked and thinned. Properly thinned stands will allow the production of substantial amounts of forage. Herbaceous plants respond to the increased sunlight and produce food for wildlife. Pine stands should be thinned every 5-6 years to maintain the production of browse plants. After 3-4 periodic thinnings, the stand should be ready for a harvest cut and, once again, reforested. Over the entire life of a pine forest (30-60 years), only 5-8 years could actually be in the dense, dark, unproductive stage that most people visualize in a pine plantation. To improve our wildlife habitat, we must learn to manage our pine stands. If we manage these pine stands, we will not sacrifice good wildlife habitat. Properly managed pine stands can and do produce very good wildlife habitat for many game species.

Hardwoods and wildlife.

Are all hardwoods good for wildlife? The answer to this question would have to be "not necessarily." Many hardwood species provide little value to wildlife, although others provide tremendous benefits. If you are interested in deer, turkeys, or squirrels; oak trees are the species you need to look for. Oaks produce acorns, one of the most valuable and nutritious wildlife foods. However, acorn production each year depends on two important factors:

• The age of oak trees in a hardwood forest is very important. Most species of oaks begin producing acorns after about 25 years. Therefore, a hardwood forest must have oak trees more than 25 years old to ensure acorn production.
• The type of oak trees is also very important. Two major types of oaks are Red oaks and White oaks.

The major difference in red oaks and white oaks is in acorn production. White oak acorns mature in one growing season, or every year. Red oak acorns usually mature in two growing seasons. White oaks are often prolific seeders or acorn producers, but good acorn years do not occur regularly, and sometimes several years may pass without an acorn crop. Red oaks are generally more reliable acorn producers than white oaks, but red oak acorn production can also vary from year to year. Some common red oaks are cherrybark oak, southern red oak, shumard oak, nuttall oak, black oak, and water oak. White oak, overcup oak, post oak, and swamp chestnut oak are some of the common white oaks. The composition of oaks in a hardwood forest does affect the dependability and size of acorn crops each year.

Clearcutting and wildlife.

As a starting point, let's consider clearcuts in general. Most people think of clearcutting as the end of a forest. Foresters regard clearcutting as a technique to reproduce or begin a new stand. Clearcutting is the complete removal of all trees from a designated area and is the best regeneration method for sun-loving or intolerant tree species such as southern pine and many valuable hardwood species. Many oak species that are most valuable for wildlife are very shade intolerant. This means they must have open sunlight to regenerate and grow. When hardwoods were harvested in the past, and in most cases when harvested today, the larger trees were cut and smaller trees were left. This is not good forest management, and it is also poor wildlife management. Because good oak species are shade intolerant, they usually are not found in hardwood understories. Therefore, when the large oak trees are cut, they usually are replaced by other hardwood species less valuable to wildlife. This is why small clearcuts in hardwood stands are sometimes recommended by wildlife managers. The small clearcuts provide habitat diversity, understory browse and plant growth, and most importantly, clearcuts provide for the regeneration of valuable oak species that require open sunlight. Clearcutting is a valuable management tool for timberland owners and foresters. Many wildlife species need diversity in their habitat. That is, they need open areas, large timber, and herbaceous vegetation within their natural range. Often this natural range is relatively small, and it is hard to find these conditions on a small area. By the proper use of clearcutting, this diversity can be maintained, and the "edge effect," where two of the conditions meet, can be created and maintained. Good clearcuts for wildlife are small, irregular in shape, and well distributed over the tract of land being managed. Also, streamside management zones should be left where streams run through these cuts. The clearcut can be used to maintain the diverse habitat conditions required by wildlife while practicing good forest management. Contrary to popular belief, clearcutting does provide some benefits for many of our most important game species. For rabbits and deer, there is an abundance of food plants. Brushy conditions also are available for rabbit nesting and cover. Quail find food plants, thickets for nesting, and open vegetation. Cleared areas offer turkeys open grassy areas for summer food and brood rearing, as well as brushy areas for nesting. Clearcutting, however, virtually eliminates squirrel habitat and should not be used if squirrels are the major management consideration. If you take into consideration the different age classes of trees on your property, and if you properly design and execute your clearcuts in terms of size and shape for maximum "edge," interior diversity, and spacing, you will see benefits to game populations. So let's put this misconception to rest. Clearcutting is not bad for all wildlife. In fact, when done properly, clearcutting provides many positive benefits for game.

Variety and wildlife.

Although many species of wildlife feed on acorns, acorns and other mast are seasonal and sporadic. Deer, for example, must depend on year-round browse plants for their food supply. There are basically two wildlife food-producing areas in a forest, the trees and the forest floor. Hardwood trees produce acorns, nuts, berries, and fruits. Plants growing under hardwood and pine trees produce other food sources: grasses, forbs, fruits, and browse. Acorn production in many areas is unpredictable. This makes it difficult to manage wildlife populations because this food source varies from year to year. To compound this problem, acorn production by oaks depends on soil types. Good hardwood sites will produce more acorns than poor sites. Deer and other wildlife must find food year-round, and, at best, acorns will be available for only a few months. Therefore, other food sources must be available. These other food sources are normally found on the forest floor. Forest management usually enhances this food source. For example, thinning or harvesting trees allows sunlight to reach the ground. The result is a substantial increase in grasses, forbs, and browse on the forest floor. Acorns and other mast are very nutritional and are beneficial to many wildlife species. However, unless other food sources are available, acorns by themselves fall far short of the total food requirement of many wildlife species.

Wildlife Species

Squirrels

Hardwoods are a must for gray squirrels. They require partial hardwood stands of trees old enough to produce mast (25 years) and provide dens (40 years). The squirrels' home range is 2 to 8 acres. Reproduction is 2 1/2 times more successful in tree cavities than nests. A squirrel needs about 1½ pounds of hard mast per week from September through March. Preferred foods are hickory nuts, beechnuts, and oak acorns. Supportive foods are berries, soft mast, buds, seeds, and fungi. Red maple is a particularly important source of food in early spring and mulberry in May and June.

Quail

The best habitats for quail include interspersed open forests, brush, grass and cultivated fields, but the birds survive in many forest types. Choice nesting cover is 1-year-old-grass. They also nest at the edges of forest clearings. Each nesting pair should have access to clearings 1/5 acre or larger. Normal range is 40 acres. Quails nest from April to September. Seeds make up 85 percent of the quail diet. Legume, grass, and weed seeds are the most important foods.

Deer

Deer live in most forest and non-forest conditions and types. Their home range seldom exceeds 300 acres where food, cover and water are available. Prescribed burning and fertilization attract deer because of the improved nutrition and palatability of food plants. The early stages of timber rotation and intermediate cuts produce abundant browse and fruits for deer. During the fall and winter, deer prefer hard mast (acorns, pecans, beechnuts) and evergreen forage. Rapid-growing green browse and herbage are principal spring and summer foods. Deer require about 6 to 8 pounds in green weight of food daily for each 100 pounds of animal weight.

Turkeys

Good turkey habitats contain mature stands of mixed hardwoods, groups of conifers, relatively open understories, and scattered clearings, well distributed over the area. Openings are essential for raising young turkeys. A home range is about 1 square mile. Turkey diets consist mainly of grass and weed seeds, in the fall, mast and forage in winter and spring, and forage and insects in the summer. Acorns, dogwood berries, clover and pine seed are the foremost foods. Soybeans, corn, and pasture are the farm crops most often used.

Nongame Birds

Diversity of tree species, age of stand, and stand density are the key elements in providing woodland habitats favorable to nongame birds. Some birds are found mainly in the forest interior, some in forest edges and areas with scattered trees and some are found in both of these areas. Some forest management practices decrease the complexity of the forest, while others increase it. Practices that can destroy the understory appear to be harmful to some nongame birds. Examples include intensive site preparation, annual burning, removal of dead trees and snags, as well as measures to promote monoculture such as intensive hardwood control in pine stands.

Several strategies can be used to increase nongame bird numbers and species. The following examples are some methods that can be selectively used:

• Manage for a mixture of pine and hardwood (not necessarily in the same stand but in adjacent stands.)
• Maintain some stands of 80 years or more in age to provide suitable cavities for nesting and the production of high-energy fruits and mast.
• Make long, narrow clearcuts with undulating edges.
• Foster low thickets of brush and vines, and piles of brush or tree tops for nest sites.
• Plant pine at wide spacings, with subsequent heavy thinning.
• Regenerate forest stands by natural methods.
• Practice uneven-aged management, with group selection.
• Use prescribed burns infrequently.
• Leave snags and hardwoods with cavities.

Summary

Sound timber management practices can create a dynamic forest habitat that can be modified to meet specific wildlife objectives. Thinning pine forests increases timber growth on future crop trees but also increases understory browse and plant growth for wildlife. Prescribed burning benefits timber but usually benefits wildlife even more. Fire lanes protect timber from fire and provide logging roads for future harvests, but they also provide good wildlife food plots if wildlife plants are present. Clearcutting timber is part of growing a crop of trees and also of beginning a new forest. If done properly, clearcuts can provide food, cover, edge, and diversity to wildlife habitat. Good forest management, in most cases, will enhance wildlife habitat for most of our game species. It is not the answer to all wildlife habitat problems, but forest management and wildlife can co-exist on the same acreage with each benefiting from forest management practices.